New Choctaw & Chickasaw Freedmen Group Makes a Splash on Social Media

 The new organization, Choctaw Chickasaw Freedmen Association has made a splash on Social Media. The new group announced its presence first on Facebook and also with a detailed press release. The new website CCFANow.org came live at the same time and much needed energy has been injected into the community of descendants from both Oklahoma-based federally recognized tribes.

The Facebook page for Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen has over 1000 members, and many are now frequenting the new CCFA website for links to pages reflecting their history and their ancestral culture. In addition, a new Instagram page has been created with rich information not only about the new group, but also with useful links to contemporary issues pertaining to Freedmen.

CCFA Instagram Page

The brainchild of Athena Gaiten Butler, originally of Kansas City Missouri, the group formed a small core group that worked together as a committee to establish, CCFA, the acronym for the group. One of the goals of this new organization is to reach out to Freedmen descendants of both Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. Although descendants of Freedmen at present do not have citizenship in either nation, descendants of both nations have much in common. Beyond the shared history of their ancestors having once been enlsaved in Indian Territory, their vision extends far beyond a goal of a tribal card.

Some of the goals of CCFA are reflected in their social media presence. CCFA's Instagram account presents history as well as contemporary issues pertaining to both Freedmen communities. Likewise the group also has an accont on Twitter and has had significant Twitter re-tweets to their posts as well.

Image from Twitter Page

Much discussion pertaining to CCFA interests stems from much of the activity found on the Facebook page. There are several communities of descendants from both nations, many still living on old land allotments from the past. In addition, many Freedmen descendants also still live within the geographic boundaries of both tribes, while many, especially elders still have a cultural identity to the tribes, despite decades of segregation disenfranchisement and estrangement.

Many Freedman descendants are found on the CCFA Faceboook page, and over 1000 are found on the Descendants group page. Last week on Facebook, in honor of Indigenous Peoples Day, the Descendants group honored the day by honoring their ancestors, and posting images of them and identifying their relationship to their respective nations. Several dozen images were shaared and the reaction to the postings has been extremly positive!

Small Collage of Ancestors Honored on Freedman Facebook Page

On the Facebook Freedman Descendants page, portraits of ancestors were shared, along with the Roll number and Card number. Some who did not have portraits shared images of their ancestor;s Dawes Card. Some elaborated by telling a brief story about their ancestor. Much of this history of various families will be reflected on the website as well as on the pages of social media

Challenges Ahead
Chickasaw Freedmen descendants have  a particularly interesting situation, because the despite the fact that the tribe broke the treaty of 1866, where they promised citizenship for their former slaves, many Freedmen descendants today will still tell others that they are Chickasaw. Likewise, descendants of Choctaw Freedmen also live on land allotments within the geographic jurisdiction of their nation and will tell others that they too, are Choctaw.

Thousands of descendants of both Freedmen groups live "at large" meaning outside of Oklahoma, having had family that migrated north and west. They left seeking more opportunities when the harshness of Oklahoma Jim Crow laws and the appearance of Sundown towns drove them away from the land that was for over a century, their home.

CCFA seeks to educate descendants to their rich history, to interact with those of both nations about the history and culture, and to empower descendants by offering workshops focusing on education, and opportunities for growth. CCFA also hopes to reach out to the community of enrolled Choctaw citizens through cordial meetups, and to encourage social interaction bewteen Freedmen and other fellow Choctaws.

Culturally, many Choctaw Freedmen considers themselves to be among the "Choctaw Proud" or Chickasaw people, and many are unaware that some of their leifestyle, including foodways come from their own their tribal background.

Much of who the freedmen are, will continue to be reflected both on the website and much more is planned to unfold on social media.

Follow CCFA on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter.

Documenting Slavery In Chickasaw and Choctaw Country

Chickasaw Choctaw Herald 1859 Ad Requesting

Desire to purchase young black boys and girls

Those interested in not only the institution of slavery in Indian Territory but also the less studied institution in Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations, need not look any further than the publications from the two nations themselves.

From the Chickasaw Choctaw Herald, published in Tishomingo, one can see requests for slaves even in the late 1850s. For example, there is an ad placed by "A. Harlan". The ad was requesting young people "Negro boys and girls" to purchase as slaves in 1859. Specifically Mr. A Harlan appears to have been successful in his request, because the 1860 slave schedule from the Tishomingo District of the Chickasaw Nation shows a slave holder called Aaron Harlan and the record reflects the people that he held 11 people enslaved. Of the people he held in bondage were 3 adults, and the remainder of the enslaved were all under 20. And and as the slave document indicates they lived in three small slave cabins.

1860 Slave Schedule of Tishomingo Districts of the Chickasaw Nation

* * * * *

In the Choctaw Nation, as early as 1851 as slavery occurred, so did the act of resistance of the enslaved. An ad from the Choctaw Intelligencer reflects the effort of H. N. Folsom to have a young boy seeking freedom returned to him. And by the language in the ad, if the young man could not be taken alive, the slave catcher would still be paid, for his scalp.

Choctaw Intelligencer 1850 Runaway Slave Ad

Other publications in Indian Territory also reflected acts of resistance among the enslaved, such as the freedom seekers of 1842 who fled the Cherokee Nation from the estate of Joseph "Rich Joe" Vann. Publications such as the Cherokee Phoenix also reflected the efforts of enslaved people who sought nothing more than the right to live their lives as free people.

The most understudied however, are the stories and struggles of those held in bondage in the  Choctaw Nation and the Chickasaw Nations. Though hard to find in scholarly works, it was the efforts of the enslaved who sought freedom who did leave a small trail in the press and on some official records of their presence and of their acts seeking freedom and the mere chance to live.

Early newspapers from Indian Territory reflect their presence and use of these publications as well as official records is encouraged. They story is larger than one single family, and larger than one single community. This is part of the larger untold narrative of the land that became Oklahoma. It is hoped that the story from these two nations will become part of the greater Oklahoma story.

They Also Died on the Trail - Africans in the Indian Removal

"A Negro Boy died on the 24th of November"

"A Negro Girl died on the 17th of December" 

National Archives Publication M234
Image accessed on Family Search Roll Number 144 Image #140

I always appreciate seeing what other researchers have to share. Recently I spoke with
Terry Ligon, whom many know as a researcher of Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen. He shared a document about the removal of Chickasaws to the west. This document comes from National Archives publication M234 which is a large collection of multiple records from multiple tribes. Among those many records are some that reflect the removal of Chickasaws, and Terry Ligon found one such document that illustrated that Chickasaws removed slaves with them during their removal to the west. This record in fact is one of the earliest records reflecting Chickasaw slave ownership. He shared that document on his blog The Black and Red Journal.

Upon looking at the record, it is almost easy not to see the words. But----there is the heading on the document, reflecting the numbers of slaves both male and female traveling with each Chickasaw slave holder.  And now, looking more closely at the notes--they stand out on the page. Two children whose name will never be known are mentioned on this emigration roll of Chickasaws. These two black children died on the Trail of tears and are mentioned on this page. There are many more pages at the National Archives reflecting the removal from Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole Nations as well and many of those pages also reflect the fact that slaves were also taken westward on the same trail. 

On this Chickasaw record, the familiar names are there---the  names of some of the major Chickasaw slave holders. These Chickasaws of wealth were those who even when relocating to the west--were not going to leave without their slaves who would travel with Thm, to provide free labor and live in bondage under them.  Names like Kemp, Colbert, Perry, Turnbull, Sheco, and others.

Terry Ligon mentioned in a conversation how there was a black child who died, traveling with Jackson Kemp. Many researchers know that the legacy of the Kemps is still one that is strong in Oklahoma today. But likewise, there are just as many descendants of former slaves held by Jackson Kemp, who still live in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Missouri and beyond. *

The Kemp held child was not the only one who perished. Further down on the same document was a young girl who also died. Her slave holder was Tom She Co. Today that surname is well known as Sheco and also Chico. Descendants of the Shecos live in places from Oklahoma to California today.

The significance of those document must be stated. As many people speak of the westward migration on the Trail of Tears, it is important that the stories of the enslaved are also told. 


Many who don't know the story will quickly claim that these tribes "took them in" and protected them. Even some from the nations themselves have attempted to change the narrative of their own history, to distance themselves from the horrors of chattel black chattel slavery. But the records tell the story and it is one that must be told to prevent apologists from erasing this chapter of history.

The slave census reflects the status of hundreds of people in bondage held in Indian Territory. This page shows  how Jackson Kemps holdings of people in bondage had increased from the time of removal till 1860.

National Archives Federal Census 1860 Slave Schedule, Tishomingo, Chickasaw Nation
 

But by studying records such as this---of two children who were freed only by death from the slavery they were destined to have---the deaths of these two children whose names are not known tell us so much more. There must be a commitment to tell the entire story. The commitment to tell the entire story avoids a lie of omission---because they and many others, also died on the trail.

* One of the more well known descendants of Kemp-held slaves is actor Don Cheadle, whose ancestor  is Mary Kemp, a Chickasaw Freedwoman, whose father was enslaved by Jackson Kemp mentioned on both documents shown above. 

Nelson and Robert Colbert Son and Grandson of Daugherty Colbert

In 1906, Nelson Colbert, of Conway, I. T.,  filed a petition with the Dawes Commission requesting that his name and that of his son Richard, be transferred from the roll of Chickasaw Freedmen to that of Chickasaws by Blood. The claim was based on the relationship of Nelson Colbert to his father Daugherty Colbert a Chickasaw.

National Archives, Ft. Worth Texas
Perry Files: File Number 150 Image #28

Nelson Colbert was an elderly man by the time of the Dawes Commission. He applied for himself, his wife and two children and two grandchildren, at the time.  One of his children passed away before the finalization of the enrollment process and was thus the name was stricken from the card. Their names all appear on Chickasaw Freedman Card Number 35.

National Archives Publication M1186
Chickasaw Freedman Card #35

Nelson's father's name was Daugherty Colbert. Daugherty Colbert is indicated on the back of Nelson's card as being both his father as well as a Chickasaw Citizen. This does not mean that he was a Freedman citizen, because the Chickasaw Nation refused to adopt the Freedmen as citizens, though they had promised to in the 1866 treaty. His mother was an enslaved woman, Sally Colbert, who was enslaved by the same man--Daugherty Colbert.

Reverse side of card

Nelson's son Richard lived in Wapanucka, I. T, and submitted his own application for himself and his family. Their names all appear on Chickasaw Freedman Card, number 177.

Chickasaw Freedman Card #177

He clearly identifies his father Nelson on the card.

Reverse side of card

Although the entire interview is not there, a good portion of it is in the file, from which good genealogical data is found. However the name of his parents were not included in the "official" interview, even though the questions had to be asked in order to put that information on the enrollment card. The value genealogically is there, since he mentioned the names of adult married children as well as grandchildren.  The strong sense of family possessed by Nelson Colbert is evident, and the data in the summarized interview is useful for future generations to reconstruct that family's history and data. 

,

National Archives Publication M1301
Interview from Chickasaw Freedman File 35

In cases such as these, the voice often missing the most is that of the enslaved woman. In this case it was Sallie---who was enslaved by Daugherty Colbert, who was also the father of her children. Such voices though silenced through slavery, and through time, and also by a policy of exclusion, their voices do carry on through the descendants. In many cases, the woman was the culture bearer of the family, and the strong sense of family and cohesiveness of the family was nurtured most often by the mother. And it is seen through Sallie's son who lived into the 20th century. He knew his father, and his mother, and he clearly had a strong sense of family through his painstakingly naming his descendants in the Dawes interview. who in his own final years, called their names.

It is encouraging that the children of Richard Colbert, the grandchildren and great grandchildren of Nelson Colbert, have a legacy, going through him, and to his parents Sallie, and Daugherty Colbert. They were the descendants of their Choctaw fathers and their legacy is strong.

Mary Russell, Daughter of Chickasaw Robert Thompson

Mary Russell, was a woman who realized her situation as a citizen living in the Chickasaw Nation. She knew her family, she knew her community and she knew her history. As a result in the early 1900s she found herself in a battle struggling to be placed in a category that she felt was her birthright.  She based her claim on her mother's history and the relation to the Chickasaw ancestor from whom they came. Her mother was Patsy Harper who was the daughter of Chickasaw Robert Thompson, son of Chickasaw John Thompson.

National Archives, Ft. Worth Texas
Perry Files: File #206

During the years of the Dawes commission, Mary's name was inscribed on Chickasaw Freedman card number 48 with her husband and their five children.

National Archives Publication M1186
Chickasaw Freedman Card #48

Her parents were Cap and Patsy Harper. Cap Harper was a Chickasaw Freedman as was her mother Patsy. Through her parents they were tied to Chickasaw slave holder Frank Colbert, which is what put them on the roll as Chickasaw Freedmen.

Reverse Side of Card

At the time, both of Mary's parents were enrolled and their names were placed on Chickasaw Freedman card 287, Cap died before land allotments were made, thus his name was stricken from the card. However, Mary's mother Patsy's name remained on the card as well as a grandchild.

Chickasaw Freedman Card #287

The reverse side of the card reveals the name of  Rob't Thompson, and the fact that he was a Chickasaw Indian was revealed on the card as well.

Reverse Side of Card

The Dawes Interviews

For Mary Russell, the official interview in the file contained an abbreviated statement by Elijah Russell, her husband speaking about his family. The abbreviated summary ends with a statement simply referring to wife Mary and their children. Clearly there was no reference in this summarized statement about Mary's ancestry.

National Archives Publication M1301 
Chickasaw Freedman File #48

The Dawes interview for Patsy, was also a common one found where the tie to a slave holder was captured, but little mention of the tie to the Freedman applicant having an Indian parent. Although the card reflected Rob't Thompson by name, the interview focused on Patsy's tie to Colbert the slave holder and not Thompson the Chickasaw father.

Chickasaw Freedman File #287

Though Mary remained on the roll as a Chickasaw Freedmen, she left the record of her history, daughter of her father Robert, a Chickasaw, and son of John Thompson as Chickasaw by blood. She was the daughter of her Chickasaw father.

Sallie Williams Chickasaw by Blood, Denied

In 1906, attorney, a letter on behalf of Sallie Williams and her family was written to the Department of the Interior, in support of Sallie Williams' request to be removed from the Freedmen roll to that of the roll of Chickasaw By Blood.

Sallie was basing her claim on her relationship to her brother Wyatt Mahardy on the rolls by blood. They are also children on Ann Thomas a Chickasaw woman, and she is stating her claim as a citizen also by blood.

The petition mentioned the people to whom Sallie Williams and her family had ties to, some of whom were on the roll of Chickasaws by Blood. One was Amanda Abram, who was placed on the blood roll during the Dawes enrollment process. She was on the Chickasaw roll of citizens by blood.

National Archives Publication M1186

Chickasaw Roll, Card # 610

(Image of Amanda Abram, courtesy of Black and Red Journal,
shared by Terry Ligon April 25, 2011) 

The children of Sallie Williams actually ended up on a Freedman card. The children Marcus, Cora, Kimble, Maise and Joe, were all on Chickasaw Freedman Card #437.

On the reverse side of the card, Sallie's name does appear as their mother.

Sallie applied however, as a Chickasaw by blood, but she was rejected and placed on a rejected card.

Sallie was interviewed by the Dawes Commission, and it appears that over the years she had been collecting payments as a Chickasaw citizen. She was recognized as Chickasaw, and that was her identity.

Charles Cohee a man well known in the Chickasaw community, testified on her behalf ascertaining that she was Chickasaw, and perceived to be so over the years, and she had even received per capita payments made to Chickasaw Indians.

Unfortunately for Sallie herself, she was not to remain on the roll as a Chickasaw by blood, although he full sister was able to do so, as was her half sister Amanda, and others in her family. This happened to others by blood as well, and in this particular case, the identity of Sallie and her children was changed to that as Freedmen. Her father was a black man, and it was determined that she would not be allowed to receive land allotment as a Chickasaw by blood, and that of her children was affected with them to receive the lesser allotment that was given to those designated as Freedmen. Although she fought against this, claiming the identity that was hers, the final decision denied her from her Chickasaw claim. She was the daughter of her Chickasaw forefathers, nevertheless.

Ed Johnson & Family, Chickasaw By Blood & Freedmen

Ed Johnson filed for himself and his family from the Chickasaw Nation. They had previously been admitted on the Dawes Roll as Chickasaw Freedmen, and he filed a petition to be removed from the Freedmen roll to the roll by blood of the Chickasaw Nation. He named his father as Frank Colbert a recognized Chickasaw Indian by blood, and he filed the petition on behalf of himself and his descendants.

Perry Files File #52 Image 4

It was ruled that whether or not Frank Colbert was Chickasaw Indian was irrelevant, since the family of Ed Johnson was never enrolled on any roll of Chickasaws by blood.

Perry Files: File #52 Image 5

The family was an extensive one, as reflected by the Chickasaw Freedman Card. Ed, and his wife Eliza and their nine children are all listed in the household. They resided in the Berwyn area, where numerous Chickasaw families lived.

National Archives Publication M1186
Chickasaw Freedmen Card #618

His father and slave owner appear to be one in the same person. It is not known if they had a relationship or not, but it is clear that the name of his father is identical to the name of the slave holder.

Reverse side of card

Like many Freedmen, the Dawes Commissioners did not retain the actual interview and place a simple "summary" of statements made by Ed Johnson. The relationship to his father Frank is not addressed. Simply his status of having been enslaved was noted, thus placing him and the family as former slaves---Freedmen, which is where they remained.

However, Ed Johnson was adamant--he was the son of his Chickasaw Father.

National Archives Publication M1301
Official Interview in Application Jacket

Family of Katie and Martin Wilson

The story of the Wilson family comes from both Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations. Katie Wilson made an appeal to have her children removed from the rolls of Choctaw Freedmen to that of Chickasaws by Blood. She was married to an Indian and was seeking to have the children enrolled with their father who was then deceased. Her children possesed the blood of their father, and her goal was to have her family enrolled as one family unit--she seeking status as an inter-married citizen, and her children as Chickasaws by Blood. The first few pages from her petition to transfer tells part of the story.

National Archives, Ft. Worth Texas

Perry Files Image #2

A bit more unfolds in subsequent pages. She and her Indian husband were married, officially, and as she put it, conformed to the laws of the nation at that time.

National Archives, Ft. Worth Texas

Perry Files #240 Image #3

Examination of her Dawes card, however, reflects something different, and it might make a researcher think differently. It appears that Katie was the one enrolling her children and grandchildren at the Dawes commission hearing. A tremendous amount of information is collected and recorded, including the name of the Choctaw slaveholder.

National Archives Publication M1186

Choctaw Freedman Card #1057

The reverse side of the card reveals additional family information including the fact that her husband Martin was a Chickasaw.

Reverse side of Card

With all of the data reflected on the enrollment card, it is a bit odd that the official "interview" placed in the file of Katie Wilson only contained on sentence said to have been made by Katie.  The one sentence simply said that she was a slave and belonged to Sam Colbert and that she always lived in the Territory.  The one sentence alone, placed by the stenographer to the Dawes commission might make the tenacious researcher realize that the story was clearly more involved than was presented in the file. 

National Archives Publication M1301

Finally the real "voice" of Katie is heard. She speaks about her life, her marriage, her children and hear grandchildren. It is revealed that she herself did not go to register at the Dawes Commission, but her husband handled their enrollment. He returned from Atoka where he went to enroll, and told her the outcome of the process. He was enrolled as Chickasaw by blood while she and the children were enrolled as Choctaw Freedmen. He told her that nothing could be done about it and to keep quiet about it.

This status as Freedmen for herself and her children did not settle well with her and she sought advice from a family member. Her father encouraged her to have the family transferred to the proper roll. She also pointed out that she herself was half Indian being both Choctaw and Creek.

Perry Files Image #5

Perry Files Image #6

The most enlightening testimony in Katie Wilson's case came from her father, Edmund Perry. He told the story of his daughter's marriage to Martin Wilson who was half Chickasaw and half Choctaw. He spoke of their marriage at his home, and who performed the marriage. He also spoke about his own mixed parentage as well providing even more information about this Freedmen family with strong ties to both tribes.

In spite of it all, the case, was denied, however, the story of Katie Wilson is that of a woman who sought to have the story of her children told correctly. She fought for the rights of her children. Though her battle was lost the records remain and her children and her descendants can all rightfully state through these records that they---the Wilsons and Browns indeed had the blood of their Indian fathers. Their legacy is strong.

It is Time to Preserve the Legacy of over 8000 Freedmen

Indian Advocate November 1, 1900
p 154, Image 21
(Article accessed on Chronicling America, Library of Congress)

In 1900, the Indian Advocate ran an article about the population of people in Indian Territory. With 4 of the 5 Civilized Tribes, they included a breakdown with number of Freedmen enumerated in the 1900 Federal Census.

Excluding the Seminole Freedmen, there were 4000 Cherokee Freedmen, 5000 Creek Freedmen, 4150 Choctaw Freedmen, and 4500 Chickasaw Freedmen. This is a total of 17,650 Freedmen from all of the Five Tribes. With Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen, there were 8,650 in the two nations combined. Eight thousand people are a significant population to study. In addition, the two populations from both tribes often had strong inter-connected families, through marriage, and by accident of geography.

Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen, also joined together to become advocates for their rights in the Territory, and for their respective rights to remain in the nation of their birth. Theirs is a story that deserves to be studied in depth from multiple perspectives, and within multiple disciplines. Historians, anthropologists, sociologists, public policy specialists and independent scholars are needed to devote some time to these two nations, in depth.

The people of both Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations, formed a community of advocates as early as 1866 when Richard Brashears formed the first Freedman gathering in the northern Choctaw Nation in Skullyville. By the 1890s, the Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen's Association was active and had an important conference at Dawes Academy, to organize and to bring forth their voices on behalf of the Freedmen.

We are at a critical time, when the memory and legacy of Freedmen from both nations could be forgotten. Initiatives on multiple levels are therefore needed. There are those whose goals are enrollment. That should not however, be the only goal of descendants. Preservation of historic landmarks, towns, cemeteries can be done without tribal support. Research focusing on historical accomplishments, biographies of notable leaders, educators and scholars is sorely needed.

People who numbered in the thousands have a legacy and it is ours to honor, and preserve. Over 8000 Freedmen today have hundreds of thousands of descendants after a century. Therefore, a commitment from the community of descendants is needed. Some have already begun projects, but the time to bring them to light, and to share with the larger community is now.

If you are among those quiet warriors, now is the time to share your work, your passion and your commitment. We cannot let this legacy die.

Share them with the Freedmen community! Honor the ancestors, for it is upon their shoulders that we stand.

Chickasaw Freedmen Would Not Get to Vote

As fascinating story appeared in an 1898 edition of the Evening Star, a Washington DC newspaper. The story described the situation in Indian Territory in relation to the former slaves of Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. The headline reflected the denial of voting rights for Chickasaw Freedmen.

As the turn of the 20th century approached, the Dawes Commission had begun its work to determine eligibility for land allotments and working toward eventual statehood, and during those years, the status of Freedmen in the nations was continually discussed.

Suffrage, or the right to vote in tribal elections arose in the Territory, and there was much discussion reflected in the press regarding the rights and privileges of the former slaves in the Chickasaw Nation. Voting rights caught the attention of many. In August of 1898 a fascinating article appeared about voting rights of Chickasaw Freedmen, in the Evening Star from Washington DC.

Source: See note below next image.

As was common, both Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations are referenced together. In 1885, the Choctaw Nation adopted their former slaves. However, despite signing the Treaty of 1866, the Chickasaw Nation never did formally adopt their once enslaved population, so they were limited in extending any rights and benefits to their former slaves, many of whom lived in dire poverty without education, or access to rights of any kind. They were continually seen as "outsiders" though never viewed as such during the slavery era, for as unpaid slaves, they were valuable assets.

In nearby Choctaw Freedmen, after official adoption into the tribe in 1885, they were given voting rights as was it was given in the other former slave-holing tribes. Apparently however, during that particular year, the rights of Choctaw Freedmen who wished to vote on an pending issue being presented to the tribe, was questioned. Green McCurtain, Chief of the Choctaw Nation at that time was concerned over the Freedmen voting, so he turnedto Washington to inquire about whether or not voting privileges should be extended to the Choctaw Freedmen.

A telegram was then sent to Green McCurtain directing the Choctaw Nation, to allow the Freedmen to participate in the vote.

It was pointed out in the same article that Chickasaws had never adopted the Freedmen into the tribe, and had therefore no voting rights in their tribe.

• Evening star. (Washington, D.C.), 17 Aug. 1898. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1898-08-17/ed-1/seq-9/>

Things were a bit better for Choctaw Freedmen. Colored neighborhood schools were established for the Freedmen, and most did enjoy voting rights in their nation. But it is also known that several years later, when Henry Cutchlow ran for office on the tribal council and won a seat, but he was never allowed to take his seat and serve. But within the Choctaw Nation, voting rights did exist, and the nation did create several of the neighborhood schools for Freedmen, and much energy was put into Tushka Lusa Academy, though it only existed for a few years.

As the new century emerged, the rights of Choctaw Freedmen began to dwindle, although the Freedmen did get their land allotments when the Dawes Commission had completed its work. But relations eventually faded over the years, and in the mid 20th century Freedmen were expelled from tribal membership as was done in the other tribes during the 1970s and early 80s.

The history of the continuous support from Washington, of the Chickasaw Nation, despite their treatment of their former slaves is one of the understudied stories from Indian Territory. Thanks to scholar Daniel Littleifield, the data that is known was highlighted in his work from the 1970s. The Chickasaw Freedmen, a People Without a  Country.

And despite Chickasaws having signed the same Treaty of 1866 Freedmen  and the blatant violation of that treaty, it is hoped that more Chickasaw Freedmen descendants will eventually start to tell the stories of their ancestors, for it is a story that is still worth telling, in spite of disenfranchisement from the only land that they once knew as home.