Documenting Slavery In Chickasaw and Choctaw Country

Chickasaw Choctaw Herald 1859 Ad Requesting

Desire to purchase young black boys and girls

Those interested in not only the institution of slavery in Indian Territory but also the less studied institution in Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations, need not look any further than the publications from the two nations themselves.

From the Chickasaw Choctaw Herald, published in Tishomingo, one can see requests for slaves even in the late 1850s. For example, there is an ad placed by "A. Harlan". The ad was requesting young people "Negro boys and girls" to purchase as slaves in 1859. Specifically Mr. A Harlan appears to have been successful in his request, because the 1860 slave schedule from the Tishomingo District of the Chickasaw Nation shows a slave holder called Aaron Harlan and the record reflects the people that he held 11 people enslaved. Of the people he held in bondage were 3 adults, and the remainder of the enslaved were all under 20. And and as the slave document indicates they lived in three small slave cabins.

1860 Slave Schedule of Tishomingo Districts of the Chickasaw Nation

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In the Choctaw Nation, as early as 1851 as slavery occurred, so did the act of resistance of the enslaved. An ad from the Choctaw Intelligencer reflects the effort of H. N. Folsom to have a young boy seeking freedom returned to him. And by the language in the ad, if the young man could not be taken alive, the slave catcher would still be paid, for his scalp.

Choctaw Intelligencer 1850 Runaway Slave Ad

Other publications in Indian Territory also reflected acts of resistance among the enslaved, such as the freedom seekers of 1842 who fled the Cherokee Nation from the estate of Joseph "Rich Joe" Vann. Publications such as the Cherokee Phoenix also reflected the efforts of enslaved people who sought nothing more than the right to live their lives as free people.

The most understudied however, are the stories and struggles of those held in bondage in the  Choctaw Nation and the Chickasaw Nations. Though hard to find in scholarly works, it was the efforts of the enslaved who sought freedom who did leave a small trail in the press and on some official records of their presence and of their acts seeking freedom and the mere chance to live.

Early newspapers from Indian Territory reflect their presence and use of these publications as well as official records is encouraged. They story is larger than one single family, and larger than one single community. This is part of the larger untold narrative of the land that became Oklahoma. It is hoped that the story from these two nations will become part of the greater Oklahoma story.

Choctaw Freedmen: Dunford Family Legacy from the Choctaw Nation Back to Africa

Zach Dunford, Enrollment Card
NARA Publication M1186 Choctaw Freedmen 909

Zach Dunford lived in Jackson County in the southern part of the Choctaw Nation. He was the son of Dock Dunford and both had at one time been enslaved by the wealthy Robert Jones.

Choctaw Nation Map

Source of Map

This is an interesting family case for two reasons. The Dunfords had been enslaved by Robert Jones, who was one of the largest slave holders in the Choctaw Nation, and possibly the wealthiest slave holder in Indian Territory. At one time, Jones was said to have held over 200 people enslaved. (1)

In 1899 Zach appeared in front of the Dawes Commission to apply for enrollment for himself, his daughters and grandchildren. His wife Catherine was deceased at the time of his application.

Close up view of larger enrollment card

The Dunfords lived in Jackson County and the township of Jackson as well. The enrollment card for the family is a good example of how data can lead to more information about the family. It is noted that Zach Dunford's wife and the mother of the children is not listed on the card, however, the reverse side of the card points out that she was deceased. But interestingly, it appears that Zach Dunford's parents were still living. This is known because the usual notation of "Dd" meaning "deceased" does not appear on the card, suggesting that his parents may have still been living.

Reverse side of Choctaw Freedman Enrollment Card 909

On the front of the card, addition information is provided which leads the attentive researcher to even more data about the family and it clearly points to additional documents.

(Notes on card point out that the grandchildren were enrolled later. Also there is a reference to a marriage record that was submitted to the Dawes Commission.)

I decided to examine the Application Jacket that corresponds to this family file to see if I could find information regarding the Zach Dunford's marriage, since his wife was now deceased. What was contained in the file was a hand written document that revealed the sworn testimony of Zach's mother Charity Dunford who was at that time in her 80s.  And within that statement she spoke to the marriage of Zach to his wife Catherine and she stated that she was a witness to the marriage.

Statement of Charity Dunford, mother of Zach Dunford

National Archives Publication M1301 Choctaw Freedman file 909

Unexpected Surprises

While reading Charity Dunford's statements, two things stood out in my mind. First of all here was an 80 year old woman giving testimony for her son. This 80 year old woman was one of the oldest living Choctaw Freedmen to have been interviewed by the Dawes Commission. Being approximately 80 years old, this meant that she was born approximately in the 1820s and was living several years before the Removal of Choctaws to the West. Was she born in Mississippi, or had she been brought to Mississippi, and then later purchase by Choctaws and taken west?

The second surprise which was caught me by surprise was reading the statement where Charity Dunford describes her son's marriage to wife Catherine. The marriage was performed by Sam Walters. That was my great grandfather, Samuel Walters. The family surname eventually evolved into Walton, but while he was a traveling preacher and active Minister of the Gospel, he used the name Walters.

Marriage Performed by Sam Walters, (my gr. grandfather)

Jack Dunford's Siblings

Enclosed in the same file was a statement by Eliza Garrett. She identified herself as Zach Dunford's sister, and she too witnessed their marriage performed by Sam Walters.

In many cases, one document leads to another, and with these two statements are the possibilities that were files on Eliza Garrett and her family, and a file for the mother Charity.

Since Charity was still living at the time of the Dawes process, the next question was could Charity Dunford's enrollment file be found? Considering her age at the time this would truly open doors for the Dunford family research.

I decided to check the database and was quite pleased to discover that both of Zach's parents were indeed Dawes enrollees, and they were listed on Choctaw Freedman card, 814.

Zack Dunford's parents Dock and Charity were enrolled on Choc. Fr. card 814

The Oldest Freedman Enrollee?

Upon closer examination it is amazing to see that Dock Dunford was said to have been over 100 years old. 

When they applied it was 1899 and he lived to be placed on the final roll, thus making him possibly the oldest former slave to have survived through the Dawes process!

It is clearly understood that ages are often a mere estimate especially when one is researching people once enslaved, so even with a margin or error of 5 or more years, clearly Dock Dunford was extremely old at the time.

I decided to see if he could be found on the Federal census, since there was a Federal census conducted in the Choctaw Nation in 1900.

From Africa to Indian Territory

Sure enough, in the 1900 census Dock Dunford, and Charity, parents to Zack and Eliza, were enumerated in 1900. Their birthplace was said to have been in the Carolinas--Dock, in South Carolina, and Charity in North Carolina. But what a surprise to also see that Dock's mother was said to have been born in Africa!

Source Citation: Year: 1900; Census Place: Township 7, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory; Roll: 1852; Enumeration District: 0116; FHL microfilm: 1241852.

This is the first time I have found a person enumerated in Indian Territory with an African born parent. His mother's birthplace was listed as Africa. In the case of Dock Dunford, he was truly one generation away from Africa.

The back side of his enrollment card revealed the name of his mother, Mollie Patterson. 

Reverse side of Choctaw Freedman Card 814

So many things come to mind while looking at her name on the card. If she was born in Africa, then it is clear that her name was not Mollie---and that she would have had an African name when she arrived in this land. But the cruelties of slavery stripped her birth name, and she had to die in a foreign land with a name of Mollie, and the name of the person who claimed her as his property, Joshua Patterson. 

One can only imagine the heartache in her own life, as a survivor of the Middle Passage, and the loss of everything familiar to her. Mollie is known to be a nickname for Mary, and for this dear African woman I can only pray that her entire life was not pain filled. A simple prayer for her, comes to mind, "Oh Mary, don't you weep".

But finding an African ancestor of this Dunford family line warms my heart if not for this one reason: At least the memory of Mollie was retained when the 100+ year old Dock could call her name, and state the land of her birth, somewhere on the African continent.  

There is so much more to the legacy of the Dunford family. It is a one with strong roots and a strong legacy. Hopefully the Dunford family and Garretts, Harris and others connected to this southern Oklahoma line, are still celebrating their rich Oklahoma History where they lived to see freedom, their rich Choctaw Nation legacy where for several decades of their family history was tied, their passage through South Carolina, and their strong African legacy as well. 

The sons and daughters of this Oklahoma family have a worthy story to tell, and it is one that if pursued even further, will lead to fascinating places in their family history.


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1.  Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, Oklahoma Historical Society Link: SOURCE

The Burning of Lucy, A Choctaw Slave

Who was Lucy?
Not much is really known about Lucy. She was simply a Black woman enslaved in the Choctaw Nation.

The few facts that are known about her, are that she was the mother of eight children, and she was allowed as were other slaves, to worship at the local Presbyterian Church of their Choctaw Masters. And she was said to have been a member in good standing in the church. (This was also the church attended by noted leader Cyrus Byington who created the Choctaw dictionary.)

In 1858 an incident took place involving one of the slaves of Robert Harkins, a leading Choctaw leader who also held her as a slave. A confrontation had occurred between Harkins and a male slave called Prince. The confrontation ended with Harkins, the slave holder being killed.

For several days Harkins was simply missing, but then his absence was noted, and inquiries began. The male slave was confronted and at first denied any knowledge, but eventually admitted to the slaying of Harkins. During his confession he also stated that Lucy was involved and had planned the killing.

Lucy denied this vehemently and it is stated that much evidence was revealed that proved that she was not involved. However, Indian Territory and the Choctaw Nation were slave country. Harkins widow Lavina, wanted revenge for husband's death, But the slave who admitted to killing Harkins, then committed suicide, so there was no guilty party to execute. But Lavenia, the grieving widow, demanded that someone pay for the death of her husband.

The culture of Slave America prevailed and in spite of Lucy's vehement denials and arising doubts of any guilt, Lucy was sentenced to death. The decision was, that a black life had to pay for the death of Harkins. It was decided that she would be executed and the most cruel method was selected---she was to be burned alive!  She was to be burned along with the body of the now deceased slave Prince, who had admitted to the killing. Southern sentiments towards black life prevailed  in Lucy's case, and this is one of the earliest incidents were the culture of "lynching-as-entertainment" was recorded.

Word spread quickly throughout the Territory--a slave woman was going to be burned alive. No outrage was expressed, and nothing was done to prevent her demise, and in fact curiosity was aroused. The burning of Lucy was going to be entertainment, and people from many miles around were said to have packed up the family to come and watch Lucy burn. Her death was simply entertainment.

So the burning of this poor Black woman, was destined to become entertainment. Sadly "lynching as entertainment" would spread throughout the south and lynching culture prevailed till the middle of the 20th century. Such events would occur, without prosecution, and the lives of those with roots in a slave environment would pay the price of simply living.

Aftermath in the Community
Not much more was known of this story--Lavina the grieving widow in the Presbyterian church kept her good standing with the church. Because of the ties to the Presbyterian church, and the involvement of many affiliated church leaders, with the people involved,  the story of the Burning of Lucy was kept hidden for over a year from Presbyterians leaders, who had missions well established in the Choctaw Nation. It was feared that had church leaders learned of the Slave burning involving prominent members of their mission in Choctaw country, that many of their efforts may have been jeopardized.

Sadly, for many reasons, Lucy, and her tragic end have been erased, almost entirely from the pages of Indian Territory history, Choctaw History, Oklahoma history and American history.

But the impact of the burning of this woman had to have reached the lives of the enslaved people in Choctaw Country.

My gr. grandparents and their loved ones were among those enslaved in Choctaw country.
Did they know Lucy?
Or had they heard of her?
Did they have to watch her execution?
Did they have to weep in silence as one of them was lead unfairly to a painful death?
Or did the story come to them via the slave communication network?

The answers will never be known---but Lucy--whose children were most likely scattered and divided among other slaves, deserves to have her story told and to have her name called. It is said that she spoke of her innocence till her last breath.

Nevertheless, she paid the price, paid by so many for simply having lived, been enslaved and accused.

May Lucy's spirit be free, and may there be joy somewhere for her descendants whoever they are and wherever they may be.

More information:
Further reading about this incident can be found in the following works:

William McLoughlin, "The Choctaw Slave Burning": A Crisis in Mission Work Among the Indians. Journal of the West (no. 13), 1974, 114-115

Master's Thesis:
Fortney, Jeffrey L. Jr. Slaves and Slaveholders in the Choctaw Nation 1830-1866. Denton Texas
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