Paul Stephens - Choctaw Council 1905

Several years ago when traveling in Oklahoma with a colleague, we stopped at the Choctaw Heritage Museum in Tushka Homma, Oklahoma. While there, I was fascinated by an image of a large image from the 1905 Choctaw Council that was on the wall. Being one to study photos, immediately the face of one person caught my attention--that of Paul Stephens. He caught my attention because his face, to me suggested that he might have some African ancestry in addition to Choctaw ancestry.

Paul Stephens, Choctaw Council, 1905

The image above is actually part of a larger image of the entire Choctaw Council of 1905. It is actually a photo from the Oklahoma Native American Photographs Collection of the Gilcrease Museum. On the image, the number 17 was written and the key at the bottom of the photo revealed his name. Upon returning, I decided to find his name on Dawes records, and I realized that he was identified as a Choctaw by Blood and not a Choctaw Freedman. It is not surprising that he could be a Choctaw by blood, as many persons are mixed blood Choctaws. However, it is no secret that mixed African Choctaws were rarely put on the rolls as Choctaws by blood. Yet, clearly Paul Stephens was identified as one who was considered Choctaw by blood.

Last Choctaw Council 1905. Paul Stephens is identified as No. 17 in this group photo

Recently, having come across the image again, I decided to look again into the history of Paul Stephens on the Dawes Records. I wanted to know more about the man himself. I found Paul Stephens card on Choctaw Roll card number 709. And he is listed as "full" blood. Of course one should be cautious not to judge individuals based on "looks" but it was still clear that Paul Stephens  was not one who was without some African ancestry.

His father was said to be Lige Stephens and his mother was said to have been Illeana Stephens. Both were deceased by that time.

Since both parents were deceased there was no parental card to examine. However, there was a note that did catch my attention at the bottom of the card. Although Paul Stephens lived in Alikchi, I. T. in  Nashoba County of the Choctaw Nation according to the card, an interesting note from the Sherriff of Skullyville appeared about Paul Stephens.

The note read: "Sheriff of Skullyville Co. says that No. 1 has always been recognized as a Negro."

This note struck me as interesting not because of what it said. But the fact that clearly there was some question about the history of Paul Stephens and what his background may have been. He did not live in Skullyville at the time, yet the Sheriff of Skullyville expressed an opinion about Stephens. The fact that a law enforcement official from a community where the Dawes applicant did not reside was even consulted was unusual and was not a standard practice among others enrolling. In addition the fact that clearly there was some African ancestry possessed by Stephen, yet he was recorded as "full blood."

With this information, several questions came to mind:

• Stephen was a man who clearly had some African ancestry. Why was this denied when he appeared in front of the Dawes Commission?
• Was the presence of his African blood somehow perceived as "damaging" to the fact that this man was still a part of the Choctaw community? To have later been place on the tribal council he had to have clearly been perceived as Choctaw from the community that he represented and from culture, language and lifestyle.
• Was recording him as being "full blood" when we was clearly one of mixed ancestry, somehow done as an act to "elevate" his status?

• How and why was there a need to disguise or deny African blood?

Was this the same bias that was later shown when Freedman Henry Cutchlow was elected to the tribal council and was never allowed to take his seat? By making Paul Stephens "full blood" would he have then been eligible to serve on the council without the "stain" of having African blood?

I decided to look more closely to see if I could learn more about Paul Stephens the man and read his enrollment application interview. What a surprise to find a completely empty application jacket!

Application Jacket of Paul Stephens

Clearly there was some discomfort with the African ancestry of Paul Stephens in the Choctaw community. And of course today descendants of African slaves held by Choctaws are not allowed as members of the nation although their ancestors toiled for decades, spoke the language abided by the same laws, ate the same food, and were officially adopted by the nation. But in 1979 when other former slaveholding tribes found it fashionable to exclude Africans from their midst and erase them from their history, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma followed suit, and embraced the racial practice.

The act of erasing on paper the Africanness of Stephens is evident but it is something to be studied and analyzed. There was no need to deny who Stephens was, but yet it occurred. The interview that is now missing might have revealed more about his history and ancestry, but sadly will not be known but the need to hide his interview should not have occurred.

Unfortunately, the same anti-black sentiments prevails today while others with the same ancestry as Stephens are equally as Choctaw as he, and they are equally as Choctaw as are others who are enrolled today. The discomfort that people have towards persons of African Choctaw ancestry is an unfortunate symptom of a bias against a portion of Choctaw people who were innocent in their presence. And until recent years it was not a Choctaw practice to hurt the innocent.

However, until someone in the Choctaw Nation gains the courage to address these practices, they will continue to practice America's original sin and place it upon the Choctaw people. And sadly, the nation is not unlike the parties that brought about their removal from their beloved Nanih Waiya. And by embracing the biases of their oppressors towards a portion of their Choctaw community that never harmed the people nor the nation, they have as a nation today become oppressive.
The story of Paul Stephens is clearly one that deserves to be told. He stands clearly among his Choctaw brethren on the steps of the capitol. He, like all of the men standing on the steps were men of honor, and it is hoped that his story and the stories of other African Choctaw people will be told with dignity, with honor and without shame and within the historical context in which they lived.

Paul Stephens was Choctaw man who served his people no matter how briefly and we should say his name, embrace his history and commit to tell his story. History without the inclusion of all of the people becomes a diluted one, and a distorted one. The African Choctaws were there, and are equally as deserving of their stories to be told.

The Politics of Blood in Choctaw-Chickasaw Country

Usually when examining the records of Freedmen from Indian Territory, there was a policy during the years of the Dawes Commission, to enroll a person as a "Freedman" if the was once enslaved by a "blood" member of the tribe.

In some cases, the person was enslaved by someone who was white, but who had a spouse who was an Indian member of the tribe. In other words if a white man had an Indian wife, then the Freedman applicant was still eligible for enrollment, and later allotted land. And likewise if a white woman was married to an Indian man, still the person who was enslaved, was deemed eligible for enrollment. This was the policy, because the applicant who had once been enslaved, had proven a tie to the tribe by having been enslaved by an Indian.
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Well, while examining a series of records for an upcoming Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen publication, I found an interesting document that proved to be somewhat different. In the case of Mary Helena Jones, on Chickasaw Freedman Card #1469, a note was made on her enrollment card that she was a descendant of "Gen. Cooper's slaves".

This referred to General Douglas H. Cooper.  He was a white man who was a Confederate army general during the Civil War. He led the Indian confederate troops during the Civil War, specifically the Choctaw and Chickasaw Mounted Rifles. It is no surprise that he was a slave holder. In the enrollment case of Mary Helena Jones, however, the slave holder associated with the family, was white and well as his wife. Yet---because of his status as an Indian agent, and also as having been "adopted" by the two tribes--Choctaw and Chickasaw the Freedman applicants had proven a tie to an Indian slave holder.

There is no objection to Mary Helena Jones being enrolled in as a Chickasaw Freedman. She was born in, was enslaved in, and lived her entire life in Indian Territory. So there is no question with her status.

1) Did his being a man of prominence (former confederate general, Indian agent, and adopted white citizen) impact the status of the Coopers as members of the tribe?

2)Did any descendants of General Cooper become enrolled members of the tribe as citizens?

3)Are the descendants of General Cooper eligible for enrollment today?

An interesting document appeared among many of the papers for the Freedman applicant. One page found among her papers addressed the issue of who her slave holder was:

Clearly, the "politics of blood" continues today in many circles, and is often examined by descendants of Freedmen of Indian Territory.

Ironically, there are dozens of people who today have an Indian ancestor----but because their ancestors were still placed on the "Freedman" roll, they cannot become citizens today. At the same time, there were people admitted to the tribe at the same time who had less than 1/4 blood--yet today---with 1/500th degree of blood---they are admitted to the tribe today, simply because their ancestors were not placed on the "Freedman" roll, which forced former slaves to have to live under some kind of "stain" that their enslavement gave them.

Descendants of the five tribes are fully aware of the peculiar "politics of blood" as practiced by the Oklahoma-based tribes, and the policy continues to be supported by federal entities in addition to the federally supported tribes that prevail.

Back to Basics: Categories of Choctaw Freedmen Enrollment

I realize after numerous online posts as well as email queries, that the basic records used to document the history of Choctaw Freedmen should be reviewed. Many find themselves looking at the records but are not quite sure of the real meaning of the cards and what the records reveal. As a result, a review of the basics is shared here.

Many times people will say that their family was "recognized" because they found an ancestor on the Dawes Rolls. However, upon closer examination one might find that the family 1) Never lived in Indian Territory, 2) Had no ties to the Choctaw Nation, 3) Applied and were Denied. 4) Applied as Mississippi Choctaws and were not accepted at all.

As a researcher, I have also found that many who are just beginning their genealogical journey often misread the records from Indian Territory that they have found. I have also seen cases where some have found a record among Mississippi Choctaws among the MCR files and believe that they have "proven" that their family was recognized as Choctaws, unaware that they are looking at rejected files. In other cases, there are cases where people from Georgia, Tennessee, the Carolinas, Alabama and other states will search the Dawes Roll, find a name that matches a name in their family and then proclaim that they have ties to the Choctaw Nation.

The genealogical research process for Choctaw Freedmen ancestry, is a complicated one, therefore in order to make the process easier for researchers, I am outlining some basics.

Purpose of the Dawes Records: The purpose was to determine eligibility for land allotments. 
Eligibility as Choctaw Freedmen, meant that ones name would be placed on a roll of people who proved that they had ties to the nation for many decades. For Choctaw Freedmen, their enrollment depended upon the proof of having been, or a having a parent who had once been enslaved by a Choctaw Indian.

Were there Freedmen who were also part Choctaw? Yes there were Freedmen who also had Choctaw blood. Many did. But the policy enacted during the enrollment process was to make anyone who had a parent or grandparent who was enslaved, to be put on the Freedmen Roll. This policy was put in place even when an applicant had a Choctaw father. Was it fair? No. This was especially unfair, when if one's name was placed on the Freedmen roll, individuals received only 40 acres of land. If placed on the blood roll one receive 4 times the amount of land.

Nevertheless, in spite of the racially biased policy this practice has affected where the records are today and where they can be found among the many databases and collections.

Documents Among Dawes Records:
Standard records---reflecting the files of all who were admitted.
Doubtful Records---reflecting files of those for whom their application was doubted by officials
Rejected Records---reflecting the files of applicants whose cases were eventually denied.

Additional Categories:
Choctaw Freedmen Denied
Choctaw Freedmen Minor
Choctaw Freedman New Born
Choctaw Freedmen Rejected

Enrollment Card of Sam & Sallie Walton, Choctaw Freedmen

NARA Pubication M1186 Choctaw Freedman Card #777

Basic Standard Records
1) Enrollment Cards
2) Application Jackets
3) Land Allotment Records
4) Final Rolls

Additional Choctaw Freedmen Records:
1) Choctaw Freedmen 1896 Roll
2) Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedman Roll of 1885
3) 1867 Choctaw Census

Supplemental Resources 
1) Civil War Pension Files - US Colored Troops
2) US Serial Set - Congressional Records
3) Univ. of Oklahoma - Indian Pioneer Papers
4) Choctaw Colored Neighborhood Schools
5) Private Boarding Schools (Oak Hill Academy, Tushka Lusa)

Advice for Choctaw Freedmen Research:

1) Separate Genealogy from Quest for Enrollment
Many begin researching ancestors believed to be Choctaw, with the intention of enrolling in the nation and nothing more. This is not a good idea for many reasons. First the Freedmen have a wonderfully rich history of resistance, and resilience, and their story is still untold. Secondly, until there is a change in policy--descendants of Freedmen are not admitted to the Choctaw Nation, therefore much energy and emotion will be spent on a process that will end in rejection. The policy is to only admit those whose names are found on the rolls "by blood". The question is asked, whether Freedmen have Choctaw blood. Yes, many Choctaw Freedmen descendants have an ancestor on the blood roll, but the policy of discrimination towards Freedmen when the mother was once enslaved, prevails, "marking" descendants of Freedmen with a policy of exclusion that remains to this day unchallenged.

However---that does not mean that it cannot be addressed. But rejection does not require one to toss the research aside to never revisit. It is imperative that researchers study the lives of the Freedmen who lived in the Choctaw community, spoke the language, practiced the customs, ate the same food as those in the nation where they were once enslaved. The stories of how they lived and survived are found especially in those supplemental resources mentioned above.

There is still need for the stories of those who remained. there is the need to speak, to tell their stories, and to share their history and culture with the world. The story of Choctaw Freedmen, is one of the more overlooked stories of adaptation of African people immersed into a Native American Nation, and who until Oklahoma statehood in 1907, were a unique people thriving on the western frontier. To neglect their stories is an act of rejection being hurled again at those once enslaved, who courageously forged a life and rich history for themselves.

Unfortunately,  in many cases--rejection from enrollment often is so hurtful that many lose interest in their history and never study the records for the rich historical and genealogical data to be found. Tribal enrollment should not be the only reason to study the records of Choctaw Freedmen. Their history is extremely rich and one that has been sorely overlooked by many scholars.

2) Rely on standard genealogy methods in addition to Dawes Records
Although there was no Federal Census between 1866 (the year of the Treaty) and 1900, it is still important that individuals document the family in other critical records.
Census records, vital records (after statehood), land records, court records, military records are all records that will assist the researcher in framing the family narrative. They should not be overlooked.

3) Include Society and Institutional Records in the Research
 Numerous benevolent societies and fraternal organizations prevailed in Indian Territory from the 1870s onward. A good number of Freedmen were active in these societies. The Free and Associated Masons are among the well known but research has also noted that groups such as The Mosaic Templars of America, Knights and Twelve Daughters of Tabor, and many others were active in Indian Territory. Proceedings from some of these annual meetings often reveal aspects of the social lives and activities. Some of the early 20th century newspapers also reflect these groups that formed in the new state of Oklahoma.

It is hoped that many will make a commitment to studying the history of Choctaw as well as Chickasaw Freedmen. The stories deserve to be told, and it is hoped that there will be a commitment to call the names of the Freedmen, and to put their names back on the historical landscape where they belong.

Expand Your Choctaw Research With a Genealogy Project

I had an interesting conversation with a fellow genealogist, and the discussion of "projects" came up. There are numerous opportunities to take our research in a fascinating direction with genealogy projects. I know that some in this group have already developed some fascinating projects. But I am also aware that more of us can engage in fascinating projects that will not only become satisfying, but will also assist others in learning more about our rich history from the Territory.

Among others, researcher Terry Ligon has put in several years documenting the 2000+ Chickasaw Freedmen who became a part of Equity Case 7071 with his blog, Bettie's List. In addition, he has also put energy into documenting several cases of Oklahoma Freedmen with his YouTube videos. Like,wide Verdie Triplett too advantage of living near an old Choctaw Freedman burial ground that lies adjacent to the Choctaw Nation Skullyville cemetery, and spearheaded the effort to preserve and protect Roseland cemetery in Spiro Oklahoma. And of course, I have this blog devoted to Choctaw Freedmen Legacy, as well as a website and a blog one with focus on the Freedmen all of the of the Five Tribes. My colleague make a remark in the conversation, that many have not looked beyond their own personal history of their one family, because they have no idea what would be a good project to undertake. Well, I realized the truth in that statement, and decided to put together a small list of potential projects that might be useful for others to consider.

The purpose of a Project Projects can 1) connect you with other researchers, 2) help you to learn more about your own family, and 3) open new and unexpected doors of opportunity. For some ideas on what can be undertaken, I have provided a small list of projects--all of which are needed to add to the breadth of knowledge about the history of Freedmen from both Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. The story is greater than our own family---and there is far more to tell than just the effort to find your family on the Dawes roll.

Possible Projects to Expand Knowledge of Choctaw Freedmen History

-Choctaw/Chickasaw Civil War Soldiers - Our Forgotten Freedom Fighters -Marking Burial Sites of Freedmen Ancestors -Finding and Documenting Old Freedmen Landmarks -Documenting Old Freedmen Schools -Where Did They Worship-Discovering Old Freedmen Churches -In The News- Documenting Choctaw/Chickasaw Freedmen in Historic Newspapers -Forgotten Faces - Collecting the Faces of Choctaw/Chickasaw Freedmen -Places Where They Lived - Former Settlements of Choctaw/Chickasaw Freedmen -Leaving Home - The Great Migration Took Them - Life Beyond Oklahoma -Leaders Among Us - Examining Freedmen Leaders of the 1800s -Celebrating Our Educators - Freedmen Teachers This is a small list that can be expanded. Hopefully others will become more assertive in their research and will start to share what they find with others. Some projects will be well-suited for those living in Oklahoma near the ancestral home. Other projects will be better suited for those who live near archives, such as the Nation Archives in Washington, or in Texas near Ft. Worth. And yet others can be conducted by simply studying census and other online records--which can be conducted by all from home. I shall be writing a series of articles related to the list above, with suggestions on ideas to undertake a project. The goal is to merely encourage others to explore the records with a new eye and to become generous in the research and enhance the historical research process for all .

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