The Politics of Blood in Choctaw-Chickasaw Country

Usually when examining the records of Freedmen from Indian Territory, there was a policy during the years of the Dawes Commission, to enroll a person as a "Freedman" if the was once enslaved by a "blood" member of the tribe.

In some cases, the person was enslaved by someone who was white, but who had a spouse who was an Indian member of the tribe. In other words if a white man had an Indian wife, then the Freedman applicant was still eligible for enrollment, and later allotted land. And likewise if a white woman was married to an Indian man, still the person who was enslaved, was deemed eligible for enrollment. This was the policy, because the applicant who had once been enslaved, had proven a tie to the tribe by having been enslaved by an Indian.
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Well, while examining a series of records for an upcoming Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen publication, I found an interesting document that proved to be somewhat different. In the case of Mary Helena Jones, on Chickasaw Freedman Card #1469, a note was made on her enrollment card that she was a descendant of "Gen. Cooper's slaves".

This referred to General Douglas H. Cooper.  He was a white man who was a Confederate army general during the Civil War. He led the Indian confederate troops during the Civil War, specifically the Choctaw and Chickasaw Mounted Rifles. It is no surprise that he was a slave holder. In the enrollment case of Mary Helena Jones, however, the slave holder associated with the family, was white and well as his wife. Yet---because of his status as an Indian agent, and also as having been "adopted" by the two tribes--Choctaw and Chickasaw the Freedman applicants had proven a tie to an Indian slave holder.

There is no objection to Mary Helena Jones being enrolled in as a Chickasaw Freedman. She was born in, was enslaved in, and lived her entire life in Indian Territory. So there is no question with her status.

1) Did his being a man of prominence (former confederate general, Indian agent, and adopted white citizen) impact the status of the Coopers as members of the tribe?

2)Did any descendants of General Cooper become enrolled members of the tribe as citizens?

3)Are the descendants of General Cooper eligible for enrollment today?

An interesting document appeared among many of the papers for the Freedman applicant. One page found among her papers addressed the issue of who her slave holder was:

Clearly, the "politics of blood" continues today in many circles, and is often examined by descendants of Freedmen of Indian Territory.

Ironically, there are dozens of people who today have an Indian ancestor----but because their ancestors were still placed on the "Freedman" roll, they cannot become citizens today. At the same time, there were people admitted to the tribe at the same time who had less than 1/4 blood--yet today---with 1/500th degree of blood---they are admitted to the tribe today, simply because their ancestors were not placed on the "Freedman" roll, which forced former slaves to have to live under some kind of "stain" that their enslavement gave them.

Descendants of the five tribes are fully aware of the peculiar "politics of blood" as practiced by the Oklahoma-based tribes, and the policy continues to be supported by federal entities in addition to the federally supported tribes that prevail.

Back to Basics: Categories of Choctaw Freedmen Enrollment

I realize after numerous online posts as well as email queries, that the basic records used to document the history of Choctaw Freedmen should be reviewed. Many find themselves looking at the records but are not quite sure of the real meaning of the cards and what the records reveal. As a result, a review of the basics is shared here.

Many times people will say that their family was "recognized" because they found an ancestor on the Dawes Rolls. However, upon closer examination one might find that the family 1) Never lived in Indian Territory, 2) Had no ties to the Choctaw Nation, 3) Applied and were Denied. 4) Applied as Mississippi Choctaws and were not accepted at all.

As a researcher, I have also found that many who are just beginning their genealogical journey often misread the records from Indian Territory that they have found. I have also seen cases where some have found a record among Mississippi Choctaws among the MCR files and believe that they have "proven" that their family was recognized as Choctaws, unaware that they are looking at rejected files. In other cases, there are cases where people from Georgia, Tennessee, the Carolinas, Alabama and other states will search the Dawes Roll, find a name that matches a name in their family and then proclaim that they have ties to the Choctaw Nation.

The genealogical research process for Choctaw Freedmen ancestry, is a complicated one, therefore in order to make the process easier for researchers, I am outlining some basics.

Purpose of the Dawes Records: The purpose was to determine eligibility for land allotments. 
Eligibility as Choctaw Freedmen, meant that ones name would be placed on a roll of people who proved that they had ties to the nation for many decades. For Choctaw Freedmen, their enrollment depended upon the proof of having been, or a having a parent who had once been enslaved by a Choctaw Indian.

Were there Freedmen who were also part Choctaw? Yes there were Freedmen who also had Choctaw blood. Many did. But the policy enacted during the enrollment process was to make anyone who had a parent or grandparent who was enslaved, to be put on the Freedmen Roll. This policy was put in place even when an applicant had a Choctaw father. Was it fair? No. This was especially unfair, when if one's name was placed on the Freedmen roll, individuals received only 40 acres of land. If placed on the blood roll one receive 4 times the amount of land.

Nevertheless, in spite of the racially biased policy this practice has affected where the records are today and where they can be found among the many databases and collections.

Documents Among Dawes Records:
Standard records---reflecting the files of all who were admitted.
Doubtful Records---reflecting files of those for whom their application was doubted by officials
Rejected Records---reflecting the files of applicants whose cases were eventually denied.

Additional Categories:
Choctaw Freedmen Denied
Choctaw Freedmen Minor
Choctaw Freedman New Born
Choctaw Freedmen Rejected

Enrollment Card of Sam & Sallie Walton, Choctaw Freedmen

NARA Pubication M1186 Choctaw Freedman Card #777

Basic Standard Records
1) Enrollment Cards
2) Application Jackets
3) Land Allotment Records
4) Final Rolls

Additional Choctaw Freedmen Records:
1) Choctaw Freedmen 1896 Roll
2) Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedman Roll of 1885
3) 1867 Choctaw Census

Supplemental Resources 
1) Civil War Pension Files - US Colored Troops
2) US Serial Set - Congressional Records
3) Univ. of Oklahoma - Indian Pioneer Papers
4) Choctaw Colored Neighborhood Schools
5) Private Boarding Schools (Oak Hill Academy, Tushka Lusa)

Advice for Choctaw Freedmen Research:

1) Separate Genealogy from Quest for Enrollment
Many begin researching ancestors believed to be Choctaw, with the intention of enrolling in the nation and nothing more. This is not a good idea for many reasons. First the Freedmen have a wonderfully rich history of resistance, and resilience, and their story is still untold. Secondly, until there is a change in policy--descendants of Freedmen are not admitted to the Choctaw Nation, therefore much energy and emotion will be spent on a process that will end in rejection. The policy is to only admit those whose names are found on the rolls "by blood". The question is asked, whether Freedmen have Choctaw blood. Yes, many Choctaw Freedmen descendants have an ancestor on the blood roll, but the policy of discrimination towards Freedmen when the mother was once enslaved, prevails, "marking" descendants of Freedmen with a policy of exclusion that remains to this day unchallenged.

However---that does not mean that it cannot be addressed. But rejection does not require one to toss the research aside to never revisit. It is imperative that researchers study the lives of the Freedmen who lived in the Choctaw community, spoke the language, practiced the customs, ate the same food as those in the nation where they were once enslaved. The stories of how they lived and survived are found especially in those supplemental resources mentioned above.

There is still need for the stories of those who remained. there is the need to speak, to tell their stories, and to share their history and culture with the world. The story of Choctaw Freedmen, is one of the more overlooked stories of adaptation of African people immersed into a Native American Nation, and who until Oklahoma statehood in 1907, were a unique people thriving on the western frontier. To neglect their stories is an act of rejection being hurled again at those once enslaved, who courageously forged a life and rich history for themselves.

Unfortunately,  in many cases--rejection from enrollment often is so hurtful that many lose interest in their history and never study the records for the rich historical and genealogical data to be found. Tribal enrollment should not be the only reason to study the records of Choctaw Freedmen. Their history is extremely rich and one that has been sorely overlooked by many scholars.

2) Rely on standard genealogy methods in addition to Dawes Records
Although there was no Federal Census between 1866 (the year of the Treaty) and 1900, it is still important that individuals document the family in other critical records.
Census records, vital records (after statehood), land records, court records, military records are all records that will assist the researcher in framing the family narrative. They should not be overlooked.

3) Include Society and Institutional Records in the Research
 Numerous benevolent societies and fraternal organizations prevailed in Indian Territory from the 1870s onward. A good number of Freedmen were active in these societies. The Free and Associated Masons are among the well known but research has also noted that groups such as The Mosaic Templars of America, Knights and Twelve Daughters of Tabor, and many others were active in Indian Territory. Proceedings from some of these annual meetings often reveal aspects of the social lives and activities. Some of the early 20th century newspapers also reflect these groups that formed in the new state of Oklahoma.

It is hoped that many will make a commitment to studying the history of Choctaw as well as Chickasaw Freedmen. The stories deserve to be told, and it is hoped that there will be a commitment to call the names of the Freedmen, and to put their names back on the historical landscape where they belong.

Expand Your Choctaw Research With a Genealogy Project

I had an interesting conversation with a fellow genealogist, and the discussion of "projects" came up. There are numerous opportunities to take our research in a fascinating direction with genealogy projects. I know that some in this group have already developed some fascinating projects. But I am also aware that more of us can engage in fascinating projects that will not only become satisfying, but will also assist others in learning more about our rich history from the Territory.

Among others, researcher Terry Ligon has put in several years documenting the 2000+ Chickasaw Freedmen who became a part of Equity Case 7071 with his blog, Bettie's List. In addition, he has also put energy into documenting several cases of Oklahoma Freedmen with his YouTube videos. Like,wide Verdie Triplett too advantage of living near an old Choctaw Freedman burial ground that lies adjacent to the Choctaw Nation Skullyville cemetery, and spearheaded the effort to preserve and protect Roseland cemetery in Spiro Oklahoma. And of course, I have this blog devoted to Choctaw Freedmen Legacy, as well as a website and a blog one with focus on the Freedmen all of the of the Five Tribes. My colleague make a remark in the conversation, that many have not looked beyond their own personal history of their one family, because they have no idea what would be a good project to undertake. Well, I realized the truth in that statement, and decided to put together a small list of potential projects that might be useful for others to consider.

The purpose of a Project Projects can 1) connect you with other researchers, 2) help you to learn more about your own family, and 3) open new and unexpected doors of opportunity. For some ideas on what can be undertaken, I have provided a small list of projects--all of which are needed to add to the breadth of knowledge about the history of Freedmen from both Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. The story is greater than our own family---and there is far more to tell than just the effort to find your family on the Dawes roll.

Possible Projects to Expand Knowledge of Choctaw Freedmen History

-Choctaw/Chickasaw Civil War Soldiers - Our Forgotten Freedom Fighters -Marking Burial Sites of Freedmen Ancestors -Finding and Documenting Old Freedmen Landmarks -Documenting Old Freedmen Schools -Where Did They Worship-Discovering Old Freedmen Churches -In The News- Documenting Choctaw/Chickasaw Freedmen in Historic Newspapers -Forgotten Faces - Collecting the Faces of Choctaw/Chickasaw Freedmen -Places Where They Lived - Former Settlements of Choctaw/Chickasaw Freedmen -Leaving Home - The Great Migration Took Them - Life Beyond Oklahoma -Leaders Among Us - Examining Freedmen Leaders of the 1800s -Celebrating Our Educators - Freedmen Teachers This is a small list that can be expanded. Hopefully others will become more assertive in their research and will start to share what they find with others. Some projects will be well-suited for those living in Oklahoma near the ancestral home. Other projects will be better suited for those who live near archives, such as the Nation Archives in Washington, or in Texas near Ft. Worth. And yet others can be conducted by simply studying census and other online records--which can be conducted by all from home. I shall be writing a series of articles related to the list above, with suggestions on ideas to undertake a project. The goal is to merely encourage others to explore the records with a new eye and to become generous in the research and enhance the historical research process for all .

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Basic Documents for Researching Choctaw Freedmen

For Choctaw Freedmen, like the records of the Freedmen of the other tribes that once practiced Black chattel slavery, there are three primary records for the genealogical process to be undertaken. The records are 1) Enrollment Cards, 2) Application Jackets, and 3) The Final Rolls.

When one speaks of the Dawes Roll, or of one's ancestor having had a "roll number" it is from these records that the number is taken. 

Dawes Enrollment Cards

One hears of the Dawes records all the time, in fact many times one hears reference to the Dawes Roll. However, the roll is a list of names. It was a list of names of people eligible to receive land allotments. 

But to qualify to have one's name placed on the final roll a lengthy interview process was required. Data was first collected on a card--referred to often as an Enrollment Card. On some cards a Field card number was recorded and in other cases not. In the image below is the enrollment card of my family, my great grand parents Samuel and Sallie, my grandfather Sam Jr., my great uncle Houston, and my great aunt, Louisa.

Choctaw Freedman Card #777

The National Archives at Ft. Worth, Ft. Worth Texas 1868-1914

NAI Number: 251747

Record Group Title: Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75
(Microfilm publicaton M1186)

Because my great grandparents had been enslaved, their names were placed on a card reflecting "Freedmen" or former slaves. One can note on the card above, that Samuel's slave holder was a man called Jim Davis, and Sallie had once been enslaved by Emeline Perry.

On the reverse side of the card, as reflected in the image below, Samuel's father and mother were listed as were the parents of Sallie. In addition, where noted, the slave holder was listed. With Sallie, her father was not enslaved and he was clearly identified as having been a Choctaw Indian from the Skullyville community.

Reverse side of the same card.

Application Jackets/Applications for Enrollment

The application jackets reflect the actual interview taken when the applicants appeared. The Choctaw Nation does have a good number of interviews that were microfilmed fortunately their interview was preserved. The application jackets contain quite often, memos, letters and the final decision that was made on the application. 

Below is the first page of a 3 page interview of the for the Walton family enrollment.

National Archives Publication M1301

Applications for Enrollment

(Also accessed from Fold3.com, Native American Collection, Choctaw Freedmen)

Final  Dawes Roll

Many people often miss this record. It is this record that is actually the Dawes Roll. There are over 680 pages to the roll itself and it is divided by category. The categories are citizens "by blood"

"freedmen" "newborns" "minors" and "inter-married whites".

If one made it through the lengthy process, and if their names were placed upon this roll, then the applicant was eligible to apply for their designated land allotment. Every person whose name is on the roll received a land allotment.

Final Roll
National Archives Publication T529
Document accessed on National Archives Website

Land Allotment Records

When the rolls closed and it was time to officially apply for one's land allotment another process unfolded. For many this process was far less complicated than it was several years earlier for the Dawes application process.

The process was actually treated as a homestead application, and it should be understood that everyone in the family received land, even children and infants. As a result, a complete file for each family member consisted of the application, a plat map with the legal description of the land, and if the interview was lengthy, it too was in the file.

Note that in order to find an ancestor's file, one will have to use the actual roll number instead of the enrollment card number.

Below is a sample page from the land allotment for Samuel as he applied for his own land.

Ancestry.com. Oklahoma and Indian Territory, Land Allotment Jackets for Five Civilized Tribes, 1884-1934[database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc, 2014.

Samuel also applied for his wife and children, and it was also good to note that he signed the applications himself, so an original signature was visible on the record. Below is a page from the application of his son, Sam Jr., my grandfather.

Source: same a for above image.

There are other resources for the researcher to explore but these are the basic records that will connect the beginning genealogy researcher to explore the basic records for descendants of Choctaw Freedmen. 

Legacy Gleaned from the Choctaw Census of 1867

1867 Choctaw Census Summary

SourceAncestry.com. Oklahoma and Indian Territory, Marriage, Citizenship and Census Records, 

1841-1927 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2014.

Original data: Indian Marriage and Other Records, 1850–1920. Oklahoma Historical Society, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

A document digitized by Ancestry reflects probably one of the earliest census records from the Choctaw Nation. I was pleased to find a document reflecting my own family history during the Post Civil War years, and have found a legacy of endurance.

A document digitized by Ancestry reflects probably one of the earliest census records from the Choctaw Nation. In 1867 an assessment was made of the various counties of the Nation, and the data is interesting to study. The counties in the nation that are reflected in this census are: San Bois, Skullyville, Sugar Loaf, Gaines, Tobucksy, Wade, Nashoba, Eagle, Boktuklo, Red River, Towson, Cedar, Jacks Fork, Atoka, Kiamichi, and Blue counties.

Looking more closely at the document the populations studied are the numbers of Indian males and females, the numbers of Choctaw Freedmen, the numbers of Freedmen from other States and Nations, and the numbers of whites. Data on acres of land being cultivated and the crops are also noted. Interesting however that Choctaw Freedmen are referred to as "Free Persons of Color" on the document. In addition the numbers of freed people of color from other states were also counted in the population.

To access this census: on Ancestry:

Oklahoma and Indian Territory


The census was conducted in December 1867, and it reflected all of the counties of the Choctaw Nation at that time. The counties reflected were: San Bois, Skullyville, Sugar Loaf, Gaines, Tobucksy, Wade, Nashoba, Eagle, Boktuklo, Red River, Towson, Cedar, Jacks Fork, Atoka, Kiamichi, and Blue.

(Source: same as above)

I decided to examine the 1867 census closely to see if I could find my own Choctaw Freedmen reflected anywhere. The item being examined is found in the Ancestry collection called:  Oklahoma and Indian Territory, Marriage, Citizenship and Census. The microfilm selected was  CTN 04 which can be accessed on Ancestry. The image number is 112.

The oldest documented ancestor that I have among my Choctaw Freedman ancestors is Kitty Perry. She was once enslaved by the Perry family, and was now freed and reflected in the record. Kitty was the grandmother to my great grandmother Sallie Walton. Among the communities captured in those early post-civil war enumerations was the Skullyville community (written as Scullyville). Surely enough, 12 pages into that particular reel of microfilm there was my ancestor Kitty. And Kitty, my third great grandmother as identified as a "Free person of color" aka Choctaw Freedman, on that document. 

Across from her name were some numbers reflecting the gender of people living in the household with her. There were two males and three females at that time. My research has already revealed the three females, Sallie, her mother Amanda, and an aunt Indiana Perry. Only one male is known from family research and that is Jackson Perry (later known as Jackson Crow). The other male is unknown so far.

Although there is not much more known about Kitty, and her life right after the war, seeing her name particularly so early after the war is encouraging. She was a survivor, and seeing her name on this early document places her back on the soil where she had lived for decades.

Understanding the trauma of war, and the uncertainty of living in such a trying time, under trying circumstances, and then seeing the family reflected in those uncertain times, is empowering. Kitty had a family to still feed and protect, and nurture. Her name on that record reflects her own determination to continue with life. Her early years are unknown, though she is believed to have arrived in the Skullyville Sugar Loaf area with the Perry's in 1831 from Yalobusha Mississippi.

In spite of the fears and heartache she may have endured in those earlier decades, Kitty survived, and raised her family. The future would continually hold challenges but she lived through them, and today her descendants live from the east coast to the west and points in between.

Seeing that small entry on a document from 1867, inspires me to keep moving ahead. The legacy of those enumerated in those critical years after the Civil War continues. And for me, when I study that first post Civil War document, and new path began, and I can say that from that one record, Kitty's legacy continues.

Who Were The Men Along the Wall?

(Courtesy, Oklahoma Historical Society)

Many of us have seen the image above, reflecting a group of Chickasaw Freedmen appearing at a hearing in front of officials of the Dawes Commission. The group of people being interviewed are one side of the large desks and commission officials are recording data from the other side of the desks. The applicants are seated in front of the desk and in the background another group of applicants are seated in front of a second desk in front of them. But on the far right, three men, all of African descent are seated. These men are attired in suits, setting them apart from the applicants.

Who were those men? And what was their role at the hearing?

I recently realized that the men were part of a group of Chickasaw Freedmen leaders, and they had been selected at the convention in 1898 to be present when Chickasaw Freedmen appeared in front of the Dawes Commission. And the answer as to why they were there is found among the conference proceedings of the Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen convention held in Pickens county.

The convention was lead by a group of Freedmen leaders, whose name should be remembered for the roles they played in the communities of Chickasaw and Choctaw Freedmen. (Many of these communities are now part of the southern part of Oklahoma, today.) The meeting that unfolded in August 1898, was an impressive one, and the status of Freedmen, both Choctaw and Chickasaw were addressed, though most of the issues evolved around the status of Chickasaw Freedmen, the last of the Five Tribes once-enslaved people who remained in the Territory, without citizenship, rights, and education.

But, it would not be until I examined the proceedings of the 1898 meeting that a possible answer to the question about the men along the wall.

National Archives II Record Group 48
(Stack 150, Row 9, Compartment 15, Shelf 1

From: PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONVENTION OF CHICKASAW FREEDMEN, 

HELD AT DAWES ACADEMY, Pickens County

Chickasaw Nation , Indian Territory, August 4th and 5th, 1898

It was clear what their roles were at the Dawes hearing. At the 1898 convention it was resolved at that there would be a panel of elected men, "to attend the sittings of the commission to the Five Civilized Tribes while said commission shall be engaged in the enrollment of the Chickasaw Freedmen, and render all Chickasaw Freedmen applying for enrollment, and the attorneys representing them under contracts of the Chickasaw Freedmen's Association, all the assistance in their power to them and that .........(illegible).........said Commission up the roll of the Chickasaw Freedmen to be made by said commission. 

1. Charles Cohee              2. Henry Gaines
3. Mack Stevenson           4. Solomon McGilbry
            5. Nelson Eastman
                Samuel Jones    

Their names appeared clearly and legibly. They were leaders who were elected by their neighbors and constituents to be representatives for them, at the 1898 convention and to appear at the Dawes Commission hearings.

Among those who signed on one of the more significant resolutions were, Charles Cohee, Henry Gaines, Mack Stevenson, Solomon McGilbry, Samuel Jones and Nelson Eastman (name later struck from document).

However, it was also noted that a separate committee of three were also selected to have an active role at the Dawes hearings.

National Archives II Record Group 48
(Stack 150, Row 9, Compartment 15, Shelf 

Transcription:

                                         R E S O L U T I O N

RESOLVED that the chairman of the committee appoint a committee of three persons, whose duty it shall be to arrange terms, and to sercure tents an other necessary camping outfits to be used by the committee of enrollment while attending the sittings of the commission to the Five Civilized Tribes.

             THE FOLLOWING PERSONS WERE APPOINTED

        1. Charles Cohee              2. Lee Newsberry

                                        3. Nelson Eastman

         APPOINTED THIS THE  5TH,  DAY OF AUGUST 1898

H. A. Stephenson (signed)                    Charles Cohee (signed)

Secretary of the Convention                   Chairman of the Convention

It is not clear whether any of the men whose names appear above were part of the team of the three men along the wall or not. And because there are a good number of images of Charles Cohee that have survived time, it is doubtful that he is one of the three men above. Could the three be among the other names appointed by the chairman?

Quite possibly, and it is also documented that occasionally the men did testify on behalf of the Freedmen as well, when extensive interviews were taken.

Among the more involved interviews were those in which there was a question of a blood tie to the tribe that Freedman may have had. Some were truly bi-racial having one Indian parents and one black parent. The mixed status was often treated differently with Freedmen and most, even with an Indian parent, would be placed on the "Freedman" roll, citing a convenient practice of giving status to the applicant- the same status of the mother. And since most mother's of bi-racial Freedmen were of African Ancestry, they were given "non-Indian" (aka black) status regardless.

Being put on rolls "by blood" thus guaranteeing that they would receive larger allotments of land because of a blood tie to Indians. And the irony of allotting less land to Freedmen was somehow deemed acceptable as if the African blood of their former slaves somehow merited their being treated differently, and put them and their descendants into a "lesser" status forever with the tribe.

Beyond a basic sentiment of southern anti-black racism towards the their former slaves, came the demographics. Chickasaw Freedmen, along with those Choctaw Freedmen living in their vicinity, constituted a larger number, and there was a fear of a black "domination" should Freedmen be given rights such as voting rights.

The men along the wall, however, are liklely to have been 3 of several "good men" who were elected at the convention and by the people, to speak for them, when required. Among the representatiaves and active participants in the Freedman Convention of 1898, came numerous "good men". And thankfully, we have several of their names. 

They were Charles Cohee, Lee Newsberry, Nelson Eastman, Joseph Murray, Richmond Prince, William Pickens, Robert Anderson, William Alexander, Newton Burney, Henry Clay, George Stevenson, Ben Williams, William McKinney,  Mack Stevenson, Henry Gaines, Solomon McGilbry, and H. S. Stevenson.

The men against the wall were most likely from among these "good men." The task make me in the future for descendants to come forth with evidence such as family images to identify the three good men along the wall.

Chickasaw Freedmen Would Not Get to Vote

As fascinating story appeared in an 1898 edition of the Evening Star, a Washington DC newspaper. The story described the situation in Indian Territory in relation to the former slaves of Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. The headline reflected the denial of voting rights for Chickasaw Freedmen.

As the turn of the 20th century approached, the Dawes Commission had begun its work to determine eligibility for land allotments and working toward eventual statehood, and during those years, the status of Freedmen in the nations was continually discussed.

Suffrage, or the right to vote in tribal elections arose in the Territory, and there was much discussion reflected in the press regarding the rights and privileges of the former slaves in the Chickasaw Nation. Voting rights caught the attention of many. In August of 1898 a fascinating article appeared about voting rights of Chickasaw Freedmen, in the Evening Star from Washington DC.

Source: See note below next image.

As was common, both Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations are referenced together. In 1885, the Choctaw Nation adopted their former slaves. However, despite signing the Treaty of 1866, the Chickasaw Nation never did formally adopt their once enslaved population, so they were limited in extending any rights and benefits to their former slaves, many of whom lived in dire poverty without education, or access to rights of any kind. They were continually seen as "outsiders" though never viewed as such during the slavery era, for as unpaid slaves, they were valuable assets.

In nearby Choctaw Freedmen, after official adoption into the tribe in 1885, they were given voting rights as was it was given in the other former slave-holing tribes. Apparently however, during that particular year, the rights of Choctaw Freedmen who wished to vote on an pending issue being presented to the tribe, was questioned. Green McCurtain, Chief of the Choctaw Nation at that time was concerned over the Freedmen voting, so he turnedto Washington to inquire about whether or not voting privileges should be extended to the Choctaw Freedmen.

A telegram was then sent to Green McCurtain directing the Choctaw Nation, to allow the Freedmen to participate in the vote.

It was pointed out in the same article that Chickasaws had never adopted the Freedmen into the tribe, and had therefore no voting rights in their tribe.

• Evening star. (Washington, D.C.), 17 Aug. 1898. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1898-08-17/ed-1/seq-9/>

Things were a bit better for Choctaw Freedmen. Colored neighborhood schools were established for the Freedmen, and most did enjoy voting rights in their nation. But it is also known that several years later, when Henry Cutchlow ran for office on the tribal council and won a seat, but he was never allowed to take his seat and serve. But within the Choctaw Nation, voting rights did exist, and the nation did create several of the neighborhood schools for Freedmen, and much energy was put into Tushka Lusa Academy, though it only existed for a few years.

As the new century emerged, the rights of Choctaw Freedmen began to dwindle, although the Freedmen did get their land allotments when the Dawes Commission had completed its work. But relations eventually faded over the years, and in the mid 20th century Freedmen were expelled from tribal membership as was done in the other tribes during the 1970s and early 80s.

The history of the continuous support from Washington, of the Chickasaw Nation, despite their treatment of their former slaves is one of the understudied stories from Indian Territory. Thanks to scholar Daniel Littleifield, the data that is known was highlighted in his work from the 1970s. The Chickasaw Freedmen, a People Without a  Country.

And despite Chickasaws having signed the same Treaty of 1866 Freedmen  and the blatant violation of that treaty, it is hoped that more Chickasaw Freedmen descendants will eventually start to tell the stories of their ancestors, for it is a story that is still worth telling, in spite of disenfranchisement from the only land that they once knew as home.